Emerging Technologies for Learning

From Emerging Technologies for Learning

Contents 1 Introduction 2 Media: A vehicle or an influencer? 3 Affordances 4 Process 5 Text 6 Audio 7 Visuals 8 Video 9 Games and Simulations 10 Lectures: F2F or Online 11 Integration 12 References

Introduction

A transition from epistemology (knowledge) to ontology (being) suggests media and technology need to be employed to serve in the development of learners capable of participating in complex environments.

A quick review of media selection and design-related concerns provides a glimpse of current thinking in media and technology:

• Cognitive load theory states that brains process different media differently (even by different channels – i.e. audio and images), resulting in "instructional implications of this interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture".^[1]
• A focus on "perception and action rather than memory and retrieval" produces a "very different conceptualization of instructional design".^[2] Using technology for active learning requires different approaches than when used for knowledge acquisition.
• Complexity of situated learning is reflected in the view that "real-world situations are much more complex and ill-structured than most instructional systems reflect, and that these underlying biases and assumptions in the design of instruction lead to poor learning"^[3]
• To be successful in implementing educational technology, designers and educators must balance learning needs, context, and affordances of tools.^[4] Selecting one media format over another is not sufficient. Holistic views of media, learners and context are required.
• Instead of emphasizing media and technology selection (as tied to particular learning outcomes or intended tasks), contextual analysis may be a more critical first task.^[5]
• Problems arise with online learning in universities when there is a "lack of fit between a policy and its context, namely, the organization and the actors within it".^[6] Even universities advocating use of technology have a limiting barrier in place (bureaucratic procedures for setting up an online course, limited student support resources, lack of a strategic plan for technology use).
• The traditional role of education as planned enculturation is at odds with the view that knowledge emerges "as human beings participate in the world"^[7]

Media: A vehicle or an influencer?

Theorists have debated media effectiveness from two opposing views:

1. That media do not influence learning and are "mere vehicles that deliver instruction".^[8] Methods employed by designers are of primary importance.
2. That media do influence learning as they have certain "cognitively relevant characteristics" and may influence the "ways learners represent and process information".^[9]

Recent research in multimedia learning suggests that tools do influence learning because the human brain processes different media in different ways,^[10] supporting the cognitively relevant characteristics of media and technology.

Affordances

An affordance is the action potential of a technology, where "attributes of something in an environment" relates to "an interactive activity by an agent".^[11] This view of media seems to better account for the range of technologies available today and their potential uses.

Transactional control suggests that given a choice in the selection of software and processes, learners, may fulfill "a teacher role of providing control over the learning trajectory".^[12] In contrast to designed learning paths, social software that facilitates interaction with peers, has the potential to provide emergent learning paths.

Many media formats are available to designers of learning materials (for elearning, classroom learning, or any stage on the continuum). Selecting media requires determining the most effective manner to presents the learning material and foster interaction in order to achieve intended learning goals.

Process

The following are the steps involved in selecting media type to achieve learning outcomes:

1. Clarify the learning intent. What will the student be required to do/demonstrate/produce at the conclusion of the lesson/module/unit?
2. Evaluate media affordances. What is possible with different technologies, given the current context.
3. Select media based on availability, expense, time, expertise, and general considerations (bandwidth, technology (i.e. do learners have video/sound cards))

In addition to matching the affordances of particular media to the requirements of a particular learning activity, the characteristics (and context) of learners must also be considered.^[13]

Media characteristics need to match the requirements of the learning outcome. In some cases, circumstances (time, expense) may not allow the selection of the most desirable technology, but a clear understanding of learning activities and media traits can still ensure quality learning.

Effective learning is linked to media characteristics and learning context. It is useful to remember that sometimes, text is still the best way to learn, and that no tool is perfect for every situation.

Text

Text is the venerable back bone of learning. Paper, digital, manuals, online chats, discussion questions, blogs, and wikis are examples of text. For most learners, this is still the area of greatest comfort (possibly because they’ve spent decades in text-based learning). With elearning, text still remains central but can easily be enhanced through simple graphics and audio. The biggest benefit of text: surveyable and portable. Drawback: it’s overused and abused.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Surveyable Easy to produce Low bandwidth Familiar Many readers Not much specialization	Overused Passive 100% learner motivation Time lag	Simple to complex learning activities Suited to synthesis/evaluation Ideal for reflection

Audio

Audio has been a component in distance education for decades. Many colleges/universities had departments strictly focused on duplicating audio resources for distance learners. Today, podcasts have revived interest in audio for learning. Tools such as Skype are valuable for instructors to hold two-way audio-based learning sessions. Voice-to-text translators allow learners with underdeveloped typing skills to contribute more to text chats. Audio pronunciations (foreign language terms) can also be very useful for learners. Biggest benefit: auditory learners/speed. Drawback: learners can tune out.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Two-way interaction Enrich a text only course Useful for explanations, accessibility, pronunciations Great for auditory learners Speed – faster than typing (and less inhibitive)	Easy to tune out May need professional "voice" Extended audio needs to be indexed – time/expense	Across spectrum Presentation Explanations Dialogue Analysis Synthesis

Visuals

The Internet is a visual medium, and as bandwidth improves, it will become more so. One of the biggest values of visuals is the ability to liven up existing text through the use of graphics, diagrams ("picture is worth a thousand words"), and digital pictures. Flickr and web-based photo sharing are popular uses of social media. Benefit: visual learning. Drawback: expense/quality trade off.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Abundance Low cost (if using clip art/digital camera) Versatile – use for any learning task Low bandwidth (if done right) Enrich learning material	Can be poor quality Motion/animation can be expensive Time consuming Involved if using graphic artist	Digital pictures Graphics – Internet Graphic artist – designing Enriches text – "picture is worth a thousand words" Animations

Video

Digital, streaming, and two-way video over the Internet offer distance education opportunities to improve the quality and personalization of the learner experience. Services such as YouTube and blip.tv allow instructors to easily share video introductions to new courses or demonstrations of lab setups, etc. Benefit: visual/personal. Drawback: can be expensive, especially if professionally produced.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Visual Personal medium Many viewers/large audience Detail complex tasks Ability to review Increased variety – CD, Streaming	Specialized team – i.e. producer, editor, camera Expensive Not easy to modify Sequential, difficult to survey Passive	Demonstrations Explanations Lecture Complex – i.e. whiteboard – physics problem solving Two way (expensive) – instructor observes student

Games and Simulations

Games and simulations promise effective, engaging, and situated learning. Benefit: re-usable, self-paced. Negative: simulations are expensive to create and virtual worlds (such as Second Life) can be complex, requiring time for new users to acclimate.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Simulation Self-paced Re-usable Team based Memorable Game-like – "edutainment"	Expensive Time consuming Complex to design Team based Added complexity for learners	Demonstrations Knowledge Broad knowledge Practice complex skill in safe environment Synthesis

Lectures: F2F or Online

Classroom lectures are a prominent fixture of education. Now with the tools such as Elluminate, Articulate, Camtasia and Adobe Connect, similar interaction can occur over the Internet. Benefit: effective and familiar. Drawback: expense.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Highly interactive Familiar – students and instructors Effective Proven history Can incorporate other media	Only synchronous Expensive No "knowledge" trail (classrooms) Limited audience size Not surveyable	Full spectrum of learning Main determinant of success is the skill of the instructor

Integration

Each media type and format has its own strengths and weaknesses. Yet, using the media with affordances that are mismatched to intended learning tasks can be a frustrating experience for the learner. Proper integration of media formats presents students with rich, varied learning, and minimizes the weaknesses of each format.

Positives	Negatives	Uses
Combine best features, minimize weaknesses Enriched learning Asynchronous Synchronous	Instructors have to combine tools to achieve outcomes "Ideal" elearning tool doesn’t exist yet Complexity High skill required	Various learning and opportunities

References

1. ↑ Paas, F., Rankl, A, Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional design: recent developments. Educational Psychologist. 38(1), 1-4.
2. ↑ Young, M. F. (1993). Instructional design for situated learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(1), 43–58.
3. ↑ Amirault, R. J. & Branson, R. K. (2006). Educators and Expertise: a brief history of theories and models. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (Paperback, pp. 69–86). London: Cambridge University Press. (p. 83)
4. ↑ Bower, M. (2008). Affordance analysis: Matching learning tasks with learning technologies. 59 Educational Media International, 45(1), 1–15.
5. ↑ Tessmer, M., & Richey, R. C. (1997). The role of context in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(2), 85–115.
6. ↑ Mitchell, B., Geva-May, I. (2009). Attitudes affecting online learning implementation in higher education institutions. Journal of Distance Education, 23(1), 71-88.
7. ↑ Osberg, D., & Biesta, G. (2008). The emergent curriculum: Navigating a complex course between unguided learning and planned enculturation. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 40(3), 313–328. doi: 10.1080/00220270701610746.
8. ↑ Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media. Review of Educational Research (53)4, 445-459.
9. ↑ Kozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with Media. Review of Educational Research. 61(9). 179-211.
10. ↑ Fadel, C., & Lemke, C. (2008). Multimodal learning through media: What the research says. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.cisco.com/web/strategy/docs/education/Multimodal-Learning-Through-Media.pdf
11. ↑ Greeno, J. G. (1994). Gibson’s Affordances. Psychological Review. 101(2), 336-342
12. ↑ Dron, J. (2007). Designing the undesignable: Social software and control. Educational Technology and Society, 10(3), 60–71
13. ↑ McLaughlin, A. C., Rogers, W. A., Sierra, Jr., E. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2007). The effects of instructional media. Identifying the task demand/media match. Learning, Media, and Technology, 32(4), 381–405.